Edited by :
Mohammadreza al-Khaghani
Foreword
It is narrated from Imam al-Riḍā (a) that he said: “May God have mercy on the servant who revives our cause.” … [The transmitter] asked: “How is your cause revived?” He replied: “By learning our teachings and teaching them to the people, for if the people knew the merits of our words, they would surely follow us.”(Sadūq, ʿUyūn akhbār al-Riḍā (a), 1: 307)
The present book is the second title in a series of works being compiled and written by the Shi'i Studies department of this center. The objective of this series is to further acquaint the young and educated generation with the history and teachings of the Infallibles (a). The exalted status of the Infallibles, as well as the ever-increasing intellectual and spiritual challenges and needs of our time, necessitates the continuous production of works concerning these great figures, tailored for various levels of readership.
With this aim, we have striven in the compilation of this series to present, to the best of our ability, a narrative that is concise, readable, and suited to the mindset and language of a contemporary audience, drawing upon reliable and authoritative sources.
We extend our sincere gratitude to all the authors and colleagues who have participated in this project, particularly Mohammadreza al-Khaghani, who played a major role in the compilation and writing of this work. We also express our sincere appreciation to Hujjat al-Islam Dr. Hamed Fayazi, the director of the Shi'i Studies department, who provided academic supervision for this project, and to the esteemed director of the Center, Hujjat al-Islam wa-l-Muslimin Dr. Sayyid Hashem al-Milani, without whose effective support this series would not have come to fruition.
With Divine assistance and the grace of the Imam of our Time (a), we hope to carry this path of service forward with strengthened resolve, guided by the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt (a).
Introduction
ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib presents a challenge for any speaker: to do justice to him, one may risk exaggeration, and to neglect to do so, one may risk doing evil. The middle point is subtle, nuance, and difficult to develop except for the wise and the intelligent.
(Ṭūsī, al-Amālī, 588)
Thirty years after God protected His House from Abraha’s invasion in the Year of the Elephant, the Kaaba witnessed another miracle: the birth of ʿAlī (a). He was a personality who, like his dear cousin, the holy Prophet (s), transcended the boundaries of history and cast the light of wisdom and knowledge upon hearts and minds. All Islamic sects agree on his bravery, greatness of spirit, profound wisdom, and comprehensive knowledge. ʿAlī’s role in the expansion of Islam, from the beginning of the divine revelation to the final days of his life, is an undeniable and unparalleled one—a role that politicized historiography has attempted to conceal behind veils of suppression.
Despite the vast number of works written about Imam ʿAlī (a), particularly in Arabic and Persian, there is still a need for a comprehensive and cohesive study that explains his multifaceted character to the contemporary generation in a clear and scholarly manner. Traditional Muslim historiography, with its prevalent focus on recording events and political life, has concentrated mostly on his five-year caliphate, largely neglecting the period before it—which was also very fruitful from a moral, academic, and spiritual perspective.
In contrast, hadith sources, especially works on virtues, have viewed the Imam’s character from a different angle, focusing on his virtues and miracles. Despite facing political biases and historical attempts at distortion, these sources testify that no other Companion has been reported with such an abundance of virtues. However, these works often lack a coherent historical and analytical structure.
The Orientalists’ perspective, especially in the classical period of Orientalism, was often influenced by Sunni sources and presented an incomplete or biased picture of Imam ʿAlī (a), portraying him as an ethical figure but one who was politically inept. Of course, in recent decades, more balanced studies have been published, such as the work by Wilferd Madelung (d. 2023), but these works have also been mostly specialized, technical, and inaccessible to the general audience.
Among the works of contemporary Muslim authors, although efforts have been made to represent the different dimensions of the Imam’s personality, each has had its shortcomings. Sunni works have often remained within the framework of the official historical narrative of Islam. Analytical and literary works, such as those by Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad (d. 1964) or ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ ʿAbd al-Maqṣūd (d. 1993), despite their high literary and emotional value, lack a documented and systematic research approach. The works of Shīʿī scholars, despite their academic rigor, have sometimes appeared difficult and unattractive to non-specialized readers due to their heavy volume, polemical tone, or complex structure.
Accordingly, writing a work that can narrate the various dimensions of Imam ʿAlī’s life in a documented, analytical, yet smooth and understandable way for the present generation, using an academic approach and a systematic structure, is an undeniable necessity. Such a work should be able to portray him as an infallible Imam, a divine sage, a justice-seeking leader, and a timeless human role model.
ʿAlī (a) in Early Islamic Sources
Traditional Islamic historiography has primarily focused on reporting political events and the biographies of rulers. The life of Imam ʿAlī (a) is no exception to this rule. Although many of his moral, scholarly, and human virtues have been preserved, most historical sources have only represented him as the fourth Caliph of the Muslims, and have spoken less about his divine and spiritual status. For this reason, in reports related to the era of the first three caliphs, the share of Imam ʿAlī (a) is small and marginal. In contrast, during his almost five-year rule, sources have provided a relatively detailed account of his political life as the ruler of Muslims.
This issue stems from the elitism[1] of Muslim historians; an elitism that considered only the ruling classes worthy of being recorded in history and excluded other social layers, including scholars and thinkers—unless they had a political action—from the circle of narration.
In contrast, hadith sources, particularly works with a focus on virtues, have offered a different image of Imam ʿAlī (a). In these sources, he is sometimes presented alongside other companions and sometimes as the main subject.[2] Many of these works were compiled by Sunni hadith narrators throughout different centuries and demonstrate the widespread popularity of Ali's virtues in the Islamic world. As Ibn Abī l-Ḥadīd (d. 656/1256) stated, “Thus, there has reached us, concerning his virtues, distinctions, merits, and precedences, that which none of those before him ever attained, nor those who strove equaled him in, nor those who seek can ever hope to overtake. And were it not that these qualities were like a fixed qibla in their renown, and like well-preserved traditions in their abundance, not a single word of them would have reached us in our own age, given the circumstances as we have described them.”[3] Despite their extensive accounts of his virtues, these sources often lack a cohesive historical narrative.
On the other hand, some contemporary Sunni scholars, such as Muḥammad Rawwās Qalʿajī (d. 2019), while acknowledging Imam ʿAlī’s scholarly and jurisprudential status, have pointed to the lack of attention given to his legacy. He writes, “If we compare what has been narrated in jurisprudence from ʿAlī [(a)] with what has been narrated from ʿUmar [b. al-Khaṭṭāb], ʿAbd Allah b. ʿUmar, and ʿAbd Allah b. ʿAbbās, we will find that the narrations from ʿAlī, despite his being more knowledgeable than them, are significantly fewer.” He attributes this deficiency to political and religious enmities that caused much of ʿAlī’s legacy to remain hidden.[4]
This concealment sometimes went so far that some jurists and hadith narrators, to avoid the wrath of the caliphate’s establishment, used phrases like “a man from the Quraysh,” “one of the companions of the Messenger of God,” or even titles like “Abū Zaynab” instead of explicitly naming Imam ʿAlī (a) when narrating a hadith.[5]
Thus, a comparative analysis of historical and hadith sources shows that the image of Imam ʿAlī (a) in early Islamic sources was shaped by the political structure, religious atmosphere, and social biases of the time. To create a comprehensive and authentic portrait of him, this image requires a critical re-evaluation and a scholarly reconstruction based on original historical data.
Works on the Life of Imam ʿAlī (a)
Works that have addressed the life and biography of Imam ʿAlī (a) are generally divided into two main categories: works in English and works in Arabic and Persian.
Works in English
Compared to the extensive research on the Prophet of Islam (s) in the Western world, the number of Western works on Imam ʿAlī (a) is minimal. In most of these works, Imam ʿAlī (a) is either portrayed as a claimant to the caliphate after the Prophet (s), in opposition to Abū Bakr, or is simply introduced as one of the Muslim caliphs. Only a handful of these writings are specifically and exclusively dedicated to the life and thought of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (a).
A general look at the views of Orientalists, particularly in the first period of Orientalism (until the early 20th century), reveals that their works were heavily influenced by Sunni historical and hadith sources. Consequently, they often reproduced the prevalent image found in these sources: a portrayal of Imam ʿAlī (a) as a justice-oriented ruler who was nevertheless inept at political management, and whose caliphate was accompanied by three major civil wars. Although his virtues, such as seeking truth, asceticism, and courage, were noted, these works generally introduced Imam Ali as a man of high morals but lacking sufficient political skills.[6]
From the mid-20th century onwards, with the entry of Muslim scholars into the field of Western Islamic studies, the Orientalists’ view became somewhat more balanced, and historical data were analyzed with a more critical approach. A prominent example of this shift is Wilferd Madelung’s book, The Succession to Muhammad. Despite some criticisms,[7] this work is considered one of the most important studies on the issue of the caliphate after the Prophet (s) and the position of Imam ʿAlī (a) in it.
This evolution can also be observed in the development of entries in Western encyclopedias. For instance, the entry “ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib” in the second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, written by Laura Veccia Vaglieri, still presents an image influenced by Sunni sources.[8] In contrast, Robert M. Gleave, in the third edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, offers a more analytical and balanced portrayal of Imam ʿAlī’s character.[9]
Among the few recent works in English on the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) that have gained attention is The Prophet’s Heir: The Life of Ali b. Abi Talib by Hassan Abbas. Although this book shares its subject with the present research, there are differences in perspective, research methodology, and historical narrative.
It's difficult to categorize Hassan Abbas’s book as a purely historical work; rather, it should be seen as a literary and historical attempt to introduce Imam ʿAlī (a) to the contemporary generation. The multitude of references to various viewpoints—from Sunni and Shīʿī to Sufi, fundamentalist, and extremist tendencies—is a testament to the author’s effort to present a multifaceted image of Imam ʿAlī (a). However, the lack of sufficient attention to authentic Islamic sources, both historical and hadith-based, has caused the work to rely more on image-building and non-analytical narrative than on precise historical analysis.
Works in Arabic and Persian
The works written by Muslims in Arabic and Persian about Imam ʿAlī (a) can be divided into two main categories: works by Sunni authors and works by Shīʿī authors.
Most works by Sunni authors are influenced by the official narrative of Islamic historiography, which generally overlooks Imam ʿAlī’s divine status and portrays him as the fourth caliph. In addition, certain contemporary intellectual trends, such as the anti-Shīʿī stance of the Salafi movement or extremist views, have also influenced the way Imam ʿAlī’s character is historically portrayed.[10]
However, some works by Sunni intellectuals have emerged that have gone beyond this traditional framework. These include the writings of Abbas Mahmoud al-Aqqad and ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ ʿAbd al-Maqṣūd, who have tried to present a different image of Imam ʿAlī (a).
In his work, al-Aqqad portrays Imam ʿAlī (a) not as a ruler, but as a sublime human being. In his view, the Imam’s bravery is intertwined with a gentle and poetic spirit, full of contemplation and emotion.[11] This work is not a historical book in the conventional sense, but a literary piece based on historical data that tries to introduce Imam ʿAlī (a) as an influential figure in the history of Islamic thought. Instead of focusing on political events and historical contexts, he provides a personal analysis of the Imam (a), considering his destiny to be the result of an inevitable conflict between moral idealism and political realism. Ultimately, with his eloquent language and unique rhetorical style, al-Aqqad introduces ʿAlī (a) as an unparalleled figure; someone who was born in the Kaaba and was martyred in the mosque, the House of God; a man who combined seemingly contradictory but internally synergistic qualities: courage and wisdom, rule and asceticism, warrior spirit and poetry, and so on.[12]
Overall, ʿAbqariyyat al-Imām ʿAlī (The Genius of Imam ʿAlī) should be seen as an analytical-literary work that focuses on the character of Imam ʿAlī (a). Using a descriptive-psychological and comparative approach, it attempts to reflect his genius and greatness within the context of the conflict between religious ethics and the social reality of his time.
ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ ʿAbd al-Maqṣūd’s work is also written more in the form of a historical novel. In this book, he portrays the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) from birth to martyrdom through a narrative and a smooth, captivating prose. This work, the result of three decades of research and writing, analyzes historical events in its various chapters using literary fiction and critiques the views of some Sunni historians and authors. Although in some cases, such as the issue of Abū Ṭālib’s faith, he has accepted the common Sunni view, his book is overall fair.[13]
Overall, this book can be considered part of the historical fiction genre. While it has an engaging and narrative-driven prose, it attempts to re-examine and recreate the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) with a fair perspective.
Among Shīʿī authors, the topic of Imam ʿAlī (a) has always been one of the main focuses of writing and research since the first centuries of Islam. Followers of the Imami school have produced various works in most branches of Islamic sciences—from history and exegesis to jurisprudence, hadith, and theology—all centered on the personality and status of their first Imam (a). Sometimes, they have compiled his virtues and merits from the hadith sources of both sects; at other times, they have authored Quranic commentaries centered on Imam ʿAlī’s role; and in many cases, they have strived to explain the legitimacy of his caliphate from a theological and historical perspective after the death of the Prophet (s).
In the later periods, a large number of Imami authors have written works on the lives and biographies of the Infallible Imams (a), a significant portion of which is dedicated to Imam ʿAlī (a). These works have sought, first and foremost, to portray the Imam (a) as an “infallible Imam” and reflect his scholarly, moral, and practical status. There is no doubt that a large part of these works has succeeded in achieving this goal. However, their focus on theological discussions, historical disputes, and extensive efforts to refute doubts and respond to the claims of opponents have made it difficult for the non-specialized reader to follow the historical narrative of ʿAlī’s life in these texts.
On the other hand, the sheer volume of some of these works and their technical, sometimes difficult language, have created a barrier for the general audience—especially the contemporary young generation—to benefit from them. Beyond these content-related points, some of these works also face challenges in their research structure. The lack of scholarly organization in sources and references, weak documentation, and inattention to the political and social contexts of historical events are among the issues that have caused these works, despite their rich content, not to receive sufficient attention from academic circles.
Research Objectives
The aim of this research is to fill the existing gap. By adopting a historical-analytical approach, this book aims to reinterpret the life of Amīr al-Muʾminīn ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (a) within the context of the political, social, and theological backgrounds of the early Islamic period. The main objectives of this research can be summarized in four key areas:
Providing a multidimensional portrayal: This involves creating a comprehensive image of Imam ʿAlī (a) across all aspects of his life, including his scholarly and spiritual status, ethical and educational conduct, political and governmental thought, and his role in explaining and safeguarding authentic Islamic teachings.
Historical contextualization: This goal focuses on analyzing the events related to Imam ʿAlī (a) within the historical, political, social, and ideological contexts of his time. The aim is to achieve a more realistic and profound understanding of his actions and decisions.
Presenting Imam ʿAlī (a) for today’s audience: The research seeks to present the pure teachings of ʿAlī (a) in a scholarly, up-to-date, and comprehensible format for contemporary readers. This bridges the gap between classical Shīʿī heritage and modern intellectual and research concerns.
Serving as a resource for both the general public and specialists: The book is written to be accessible to a general audience interested in the life and character of Imam ʿAlī (a). At the same time, it serves as a preliminary and systematic introduction for students and researchers undertaking historical and analytical studies about him.
Key Features of the Book
As mentioned earlier, historical sources by Muslims, influenced by their elitist approach, have primarily focused on the political dimensions of Imam ʿAlī’s life. In contrast, Shīʿī works have strived to present an image of him as an infallible Imam and a figure of great scholarly and spiritual authority. This book, however, aims to adopt a moderate, analytical, and contextual approach, taking into account the unique circumstances of the historical events during ʿAlī’s era.
Undoubtedly, Muslim historians have recorded a wealth of information about the caliphate of Imam ʿAlī (a) and its events. However, this data was heavily shaped by the political and theological biases of its authors and compiled long after the events took place. Furthermore, their focus on wars and political disputes has marginalized other aspects of Imam ʿAlī’s character, such as his intellectual, ethical, civilizational, and educational dimensions.
Accordingly, the sources used in this book are not limited to historical works; they also draw upon hadith, literary sources, and especially Nahj al-Balāgha, to paint a more complete picture of ʿAlī’s life. The reality is that examining the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) is impossible without considering the political and theological contexts of the early Islamic period. For example, the issue of the caliphate was not merely a theological dispute; it was a crucial and fateful event whose consequences continued for centuries in Islamic history. The formation of the Kharijite sect after the Battle of Ṣiffīn is one example of this historical continuity.
Keeping these points in mind, this book attempts to cover the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) from his birth to his martyrdom, considering all political, social, theological, and ethical aspects. The features of this book can be summarized in a few main points:
1. A Shīʿī Perspective on the Life of Imam ʿAlī (a)
This book re-examines the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) by drawing on a wide range of Islamic sources, including historical, hadith, literary, and exegetical texts, written by both Sunni and Shīʿī scholars. In this process, Shīʿī sources are treated not merely as theological texts but as historical resources with research value.
2. An Accessible Text for a General Audience
To meet the needs of non-specialist readers and to make the teachings of ʿAlī (a) more accessible to the public, this book aims to present a clear and straightforward account of Imam ʿAlī’s (a) life. In-depth theological and historical analyses have been moved to the footnotes, except where essential, to create a more readable text that facilitates a better understanding of historical events. The book avoids complex language, convoluted sentences, and scattered analyses, striving instead to use a clear narrative that familiarizes the reader with the social, political, and cultural contexts of Imam ʿAlī’s time.
3. Commitment to Academic Structure and Referencing
Throughout the book, historical data has been primarily sourced from first-hand, reliable sources. In cases involving disputed issues among different Islamic denominations, an effort has been made to draw on sources from both sides while keeping references concise. The writing style also integrates the author’s analysis with the textual data in a way that allows the reader to distinguish between the historical account and the analytical interpretation.
Intended Audience and Structure of the Book
This book is intended for today’s generation—including both Shia and non-Shia, Muslims and non-Muslims, specialists and non-specialists. Its main goal is to introduce readers to the life of Imam ʿAlī (a) through a smooth, well-documented, and understandable narrative. To achieve this, the book is organized into three main sections:
Section One: Biography of ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (a)
This section is dedicated to the historical narrative of Imam ʿAlī’s (a) life, from his birth to his martyrdom. The approach is narrative-driven, documented, and yet simple and easy to understand. It is designed to familiarize the reader with the sequence of historical events during Ali's era and their political and social contexts.
Section Two: Articles
This section aims to introduce the various facets of Imam ʿAlī’s (a) personality from different perspectives. Topics that were not suitable for the narrative-based life story are presented here as specialized articles. These articles are as follows:
1)Imam ʿAlī (a) in the Words of the Ahl al-Bayt (a) and His Companions
This article examines diverse hadith and historical sources to collect and analyze what others have narrated about Imam ʿAlī (a), including the Ahl al-Bayt (a), the Companions, and the Successors. The article is structured into two sections: 1-The portrayal of Imam ʿAlī (a) in the words of the Ahl al-Bayt (a); and 2-Imam ʿAlī (a) in the words of his companions.
2)Imam ʿAlī’s Imamate: Arguments and Textual Evidence
This article, after defining the concept of Imamate in both Shīʿī and Sunni thought, examines the most important Quranic, historical, and narrative evidence for the Imamate of Imam ʿAlī (a). The differences in viewpoints regarding the institution of the Imamate are also analyzed, with the primary focus of the research being references to Sunni hadith and exegetical sources.
3)The Meaning of “Walī/Mawlā” in Imami Theology
This article examines the theological arguments of Imami theologians regarding the terms Walī in the Verse of Wilāya and Mawlā in the Hadith of Ghadir. Two main approaches to interpreting these terms are analyzed: first, understanding “having priority” as a possible meaning; and second, accepting this meaning as the primary and true meaning of the term.
4)Abū Ṭālib (a): Supporter of the Prophet (s)
This article focuses on the life of Abū Ṭālib (a), the Imam ʿAlī’s father, examining the historical and theological evidence for his faith. The analysis is based on reports from primary historical sources, narrations from the Ahl al-Bayt (a), and the arguments of Imami theologians.
5)The Companions of Imam ʿAlī (a)
This article re-examines the biographies of fifteen of Imam ʿAlī’s most prominent companions, from the time of the Prophet (s) up to the post-caliphate period. It seeks to explain the role each of them played in significant events and their companionship with the Imam (a) in various situations.
6)Imam ʿAlī (a) and Theological Teachings
This article categorizes and explains the theological teachings based on the narrations of Imam ʿAlī (a), according to the five principles of Imami beliefs: Monotheism, Prophethood, Justice, Imamate, and Resurrection.
7)History of Imam ʿAlī’s Shrine
In this article, the historical evolution of Imam ʿAlī’s burial place is examined, from the time it was hidden to its current state. It also reviews and introduces the stages of expansion, reconstruction, and transformation of the shrine from the Abbasid period to the contemporary era.
8)Nahj al-Balāgha (Abolfazl Hafezian Baboli)
This article provides an overview of the history of the compilation of Nahj al-balagha by al-Sharīf al-Raḍī (d. 406/1015), its content structure, its documentary status and narrators, and an examination of questions and responses regarding this work. At the end, a bibliography of Nahj al-balagha and the most important sources about it are introduced.
9)Economic Justice (Mohammad Mahdi Karami-Askar Dirbaz)
This article examines the concept of justice in the economic policies of Imam ʿAlī’s government. The main focus is on economic balance, social solidarity, and his efforts to ensure the public’s access to the resources of the Islamic government.[14]
Section Three: Selected Hadiths
This section contains a collection of selected narrations from Imam ʿAlī (a) across various fields, including ethics, politics, worship, social rights, and educational teachings. The purpose of this section is to directly familiarize the reader with the language and teachings of Imam ʿAlī (a), in addition to the historical narrative and theological and political analyses.
Overall, the book’s three-layered structure (biography, articles, Hadiths) allows the reader to benefit from the historical narrative, gain access to intellectual analyses, and become directly acquainted with the words and tradition of ʿAlī (a) through primary texts.
It should be noted that all English translations of the Holy Quran used in the book are from the English translation of the Quran by Ali Quli Qarai. Also, wherever the English translation of the phrases from Nahj al-balagha appears in the text, it has been taken from the translation by Tahera Qutbuddin.[15]
Concluding Remarks
I consider it my duty to express my sincere gratitude to all the esteemed individuals who helped me in the writing and completion of this research. Special thanks go to Dr. Seyyid Mohsen Mousavi and Dr. Hamed Fayazi, whose perceptive insights, guidance, and valuable suggestions paved the way for this research to come to fruition. I also extend my deepest appreciation for the unwavering support of Hojjat al-Islām Dr. Seyyid Hashim al-Milani, the respected head of the center.
Undoubtedly, neither this work nor any of what has been written about Imam ʿAlī (a) so far, or will be written in the future, will ever be able to fully portray all the dimensions of that great Imam’s personality. This is because the pen and paper are incapable and insufficient in the face of the vastness of ʿAlī’s perfections. Nevertheless, I hope that this small effort will serve as a spiritual reserve and a provision for the afterlife for this humble servant, in the eyes of the Lord.
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[1]. Elitism in historiography means that only the ruling political class has been the focus of historians, and they have only narrated the events and incidents related to them. This point is clearly visible in Islamic historiography, as Muslim historians have directed all their attention to the ruling class and have narrated their lives and related political events. As a result, other social classes, including thinkers and scholars, have not been included in the narration of Muslim historians unless they had a political action.
[2]. See e.g. Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal, Faḍāʾil al-ṣaḥāba, 2: 563-726; Nasāʾī, Khaṣāʾiṣ Amīr al-muʾminīn.
[3]. Ibn Abī al-Ḥadīd, Sharḥ Nahj al-balāgha, 13: 224.
[4]. Qalʿajī, Mawsūʿat Fiqh ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, 6-7.
[5]. Ibn Sharāshūb, Manāqib, 2: 351.
[6]. See Shaykhulʾislāmī, Rafīʿī, and Qurayshī, “Āsībshināsī-yi ārā wa naẓarāt-i Khāwarshināsān darbāra-yi dīdgāh-hāyi siyāsī wa ijtimāʿī-yi ḥaḍrat-i ʿAlī (a).”
[7]. See ʿAbdulmuḥammadī and Raḥīmī, Imām ʿAlī (a) jānishīn-i Rasūlullāh (s). Furthermore, Sayyed Hāshim al-Mīlānī criticizes some of Madelung's views; see: Khilāfat Muḥammad; Baḥthun ḥawl al-Kilāfa fī waqtin mubakkir (Muhammad's Caliphate: Discussion on the Caliphate in an Early Period).
[8]. See Vaglieri, “ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib,” EI2 1: 381-86.
[9]. See Gleave, “ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib,” EI3 (Online).
[10]. An example of this perspective is the book Sīrat Amīr al-Muʾminīn ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib, authored by Ali Muhammad As-Sallabi and translated into English in two volumes as Biography of Ali Ibn Abi Talib. Throughout his work, he attempts to challenge Shīʿī beliefs by relying on the official Sunni reading of ʿAlī’s life.
[11]. ʿAqqād, ʿAbqariyyat al-Imām ʿAlī, 7-8.
[12]. See Ibid., 129-31.
[13]. See Miʿmārī, “ʿAbd al-Fattāḥ ʿAbd al-Maqṣūd.”
[14]. We sincerely thank the Research Institute for Islamic Culture and Thought for their cooperation in facilitating the republication of these two articles in the present collection.
[15]. Sharīf al-Raḍī, Muḥammad b. al-Ḥusayn al-. Nahj al-Balāghah; The Wisdom and Eloquence of ʿAlī. Translated by Tahera Qutbuddin. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2024.
